As part of an ongoing exploration into Retracing Buchanan’s Journey, I recently visited Channarayanadurga, a village nestled at the base of a hill bearing the same name in Koratagere Taluk of Tumakuru District. This historically significant location was once a garrison stronghold during Tipu Sultan’s reign and still holds traces of its storied past—a time when the region was a one of hub for the production of high-quality crucible steel.

One of the most intriguing aspects of Channarayanadurga’s history is its role as a center for crucible steel manufacturing, a process that has long fascinated historians and metallurgists alike. What makes this particularly remarkable is the absence of local iron ore deposits—the nearest sources being Chikkanayakanahalli and Kudure Kanive of Chikkabyaladakere. Despite this, the area sustained a thriving iron-smelting industry.

Why did Channarayanadurga Emerge as a Steel-Manufacturing Hub?  Two compelling reasons emerge: first, strategic military importance – As a fortified outpost under Tipu Sultan, Channarayanadurga likely played a crucial role in the production of steel for weaponry and tools, making it a tactically significant location for metalworking. And second, abundant natural resources – The region’s dense forests provided an ample supply of wood, essential for charcoal production, a key component in the smelting process.

 The historical relevance of this site is further reinforced by the observations of Scottish surveyor Francis Buchanan, who visited Channarayanadurga on August 13, 1800. In his meticulous records, Buchanan documented iron-smelting activities not only in this region but also in Madhugiri, Hagalavadi,Gattipura, and Devarayanadurga.

His accounts describe the crucible steel-making process in detail: Iron wedges were combined with

Plant materials, including leaves of Cassia auriculata and water.  These were all placed inside unbaked clay crucibles.  Once dried, these crucibles were heated in a furnace, yielding exceptionally high-grade steel used for swords, agricultural tools, and even musical instrument strings.

During my visit, I surveyed the local landscape and engaged in discussions with villagers to uncover traces of this forgotten industry. The term “Kittada Kallu,” still used by locals, led me to villages such as Gowjagal, Negalal, and Maranayakanahalli.   In Maranayakanahalli, a shepherd guided me to a site where remnants of centuries-old smelting operations still persist. Among the debris heaps, I discovered: broken crucibles, tuyeres (nozzles used to channel air into smelters), and slag that was clear evidence of iron production.

These findings corroborate Buchanan’s accounts, affirming the region’s historical role in the crucible steel tradition.

Shiva is an avid field explorer of history and the environment and is Project Field Researcher at FAIR.